U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement

U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Abbreviation ICE
ICE is a component of the United States Department of Homeland Security
Badge of the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement.
Motto "Protecting National Security and Upholding Public Safety"
Agency overview
Formed March 1, 2003
Preceding agencies
Employees 20,546 (2011)
Annual budget $5.82 billion (2012)[1][2]
Legal personality Governmental: Government agency
Jurisdictional structure
Federal agency United States
Constituting instrument Homeland Security Act of 2002
General nature
Operational structure
Headquarters Washington, D.C.
Agency executive John T. Morton, Director
Parent agency U.S. Department of Homeland Security
Website
ice.gov

U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) is a federal law enforcement agency under the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS), responsible for identifying, investigating, and dismantling vulnerabilities regarding the nation's border, economic, transportation, and infrastructure security. The largest components within ICE are Homeland Security Investigations (HSI) and Enforcement & Removal Operations (ERO). Headquartered in Washington, D.C., ICE is charged with the investigation and enforcement of over 400 federal statutes within the United States, and maintains attachés at major U.S. embassies overseas.

ICE is led by a director, who is appointed at the sub-Cabinet level by the president of the United States, confirmed by the Senate, and reports directly to the Secretary of Homeland Security.[3] The mission of ICE is to protect the United States and uphold public safety by enforcing immigration and customs laws.

Contents

History

U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement was formed pursuant to the Homeland Security Act of 2002 following the events of September 11, 2001. With the establishment of the Department of Homeland Security the functions and jurisdictions of several border and revenue enforcement agencies were combined and consolidated into U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. Consequently, ICE is the largest investigative arm of the Department of Homeland Security, and the second largest contributor to the nation's Joint Terrorism Task Force (after the Federal Bureau of Investigation).[4]

The agencies that were either moved entirely or merged in part into ICE included the investigative and intelligence resources of the United States Customs Service, the criminal investigative and detention and deportation resources of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, and the Federal Protective Service. The Federal Protective Service was transferred from ICE to the National Protection and Programs Directorate effective October 28, 2009. At one point, the Federal Air Marshals Service was moved from the Transportation Security Administration to ICE, but they were eventually moved back to the TSA.

Organization

U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement is responsible for identifying and eliminating border, economic, transportation, and infrastructure security vulnerabilities. ICE has an estimated 15,000 employees in 400 domestic and 50 international offices,[5] though another official figure counts 20,000 employees.[6]

The organization is composed of four law enforcement divisions and several support divisions each headed by a director who reports to a Deputy Assistant Secretary.[7] The divisions of ICE provide investigation, interdiction and security services to the public and other law enforcement partners in the federal and local sectors.

Homeland Security Investigations (HSI)

The Special Agents of HSI use their broad legal authority to investigate and combat a range of issues that threaten the national security of the United States such as strategic crimes, human rights violations, human smuggling, art theft, human trafficking, drug smuggling, arms trafficking and other types of smuggling (including weapons of mass destruction), immigration crimes, gang investigations; financial crimes including money laundering, bulk cash smuggling and financial fraud; terrorism, computer crimes including the international trafficking of child pornography over the Internet, Intellectual Property Rights crimes (trafficking of counterfeit trademark protected merchandise), Cultural Property crimes (theft and smuggling of antiquities and art), and import/export enforcement issues. HSI special agents conduct investigations aimed at protecting critical infrastructure industries that are vulnerable to sabotage, attack or exploitation.[8] HSI special agents also provide security details for VIPs, witness protection, and support the U.S. Secret Service's mission during overtaxed times such as special-security events and protecting candidates running for U.S. president.

HSI was formerly known as the ICE Office of Investigations (OI). HSI Special Agents have legal authority to enforce the U.S. Immigration and Nationality Act (Title 8), U.S. Customs Laws (Title 19), along with Titles 5, 6, 12, 18 (Federal Criminal Code and Rules), 21 (food & drugs), 22, 28, 31 (Money and Finance), 46, 49, and 50 (War and National Defense) statutes; giving them the broadest federal law enforcement jurisdiction of any agency. HSI has more than 8,500 Special Agents, making it the second largest federal law enforcement and criminal investigative agency within the United States government next to the FBI.

The change of names from ICE OI to HSI was announced in June 2010. Part of the reasoning behind the name change was to better describe the general activities of the agency, and to avoid the uninformed stigma that this agency only investigates immigration-related issues (ex. ERO agents/officers were often confused for OI/HSI special agents). Perhaps, too, it is speculated that because HSI is the U.S. Department of Homeland Security's primary investigative body, some think it will be pulled out from under the ICE umbrella one day and stand independent under the DHS. An obscure fact is the original planned name before settling on ICE was the Bureau of Investigations and Criminal Enforcement, but the brothers at the FBI didn't approve and made their complaints heard.

Intelligence

Intelligence is a subcomponent of Homeland Security Investigations (HSI). The Office of Intelligence uses its Intelligence Research Specialists for the collection, analysis, and dissemination of strategic and tactical intelligence data for use by the operational elements of ICE and DHS. Consequently, the Office of Intelligence works closely with the Central Intelligence Agency, the Federal Bureau of Investigation and U.S. Customs and Border Protection.

International Affairs

IA is a subcomponent of Homeland Security Investigations (HSI). The Office of International Affairs, with agents in over 60 locations around the world, represents DHS’ broadest footprint beyond US borders. ICE Attaché offices work with foreign counterparts to identify and combat transnational criminal organizations before they threaten the United States. IA also facilitates domestic HSI investigations.

Enforcement and Removal Operations (ERO)

ERO is responsible for enforcing the nation's immigration laws and ensuring the departure of all removable aliens from the United States. ERO uses its Immigration Enforcement Agents (IEA) to interdict, apprehend, and remove criminal aliens found in the nation's jails and prisons. As such, IEAs are the uniformed presence of immigration enforcement within the interior of the United States. IEAs also are responsible for the transportation and detention of aliens in ICE custody. ERO uses its Deportation Officers to prosecute aliens for illegal re-entry after deportation, monitor cases during deportation proceedings, supervise released aliens who are subject to deportation, and to remove aliens from the United States.[9] Deportation Officers and IEAs also operate strategically placed Fugitive Operations Teams whose function is to locate, apprehend, and remove aliens who absconded from immigration proceedings and remain in the United States with an outstanding Warrant of Deportation. ERO custody management consists of a partnership with the United States Marshals Service in operating JPATS, the Justice Prisoner and Alien Transportation System, otherwise known as Con-Air, to remove criminal aliens from the United States.[10]

ERO is also responsible for management of the Secure Communities program which identifies removable aliens located in jails and prisons. Fingerprints submitted as part of the normal criminal arrest and booking process will automatically check both the Integrated Automatic Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS) of the FBI’s Criminal Justice Information Services (CJIS) Division and the Automated Biometric Identification System (IDENT) of the Department of Homeland Security’s US-VISIT Program.

ERO was formerly known as the Office of Detention and Removal Operations (DRO).

Office of State, Local and Tribal Coordination (OSLTC)

OSLTC is ICE's primary outreach and communications component for state, local and tribal stakeholders. It is responsible for building and improving relationships, and coordinating activities with state, local, territorial, and tribal law enforcement agencies and through public engagement. It also fosters and sustains relationships with federal, state and local government officials and coordinates ICE ACCESS programs (Agreements of Cooperation in Communities to Enhance Safety and Security).

Office of the Principal Legal Advisor (OPLA)

OPLA provides legal advice, training and services to support the ICE mission and defends the interests of the United States in the administrative and federal courts.

Office of Professional Responsibility

OPR is responsible for investigating allegations of misconduct involving employees of ICE and U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP). OPR preserves the organizational integrity of U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement by impartially, independently and thoroughly investigating allegations of criminal or serious administrative misconduct by ICE and CBP employees worldwide. Additionally, OPR inspects and reviews ICE offices, operations and processes so as to provide executive management with independent reviews of the agency's organizational health. In this role, OPR assesses the effectiveness and efficiency of ICE in carrying out its mission.

Organizations formerly associated with Immigration and Customs Enforcement

The Federal Air Marshal Service (FAMS) was aligned into ICE shortly after the creation of the Department of Homeland Security. On October 16, 2005, Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff officially approved the transfer of the Federal Air Marshal Service from the Bureau of Immigration & Customs Enforcement (ICE) to the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) as part of a broader departmental reorganization to align functions consistent with the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) "Second Stage Review" findings for:

As part of this realignment, the Director of the Federal Air Marshal Service also became the Assistant Administrator for the TSA Office of Law Enforcement (OLE), which houses nearly all TSA law enforcement services.

The Federal Protective Service (FPS) was moved from the General Services Administration (GSA) to ICE upon the creation of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). The FPS was later moved out of ICE to the National Protection Programs Directorate.

Training

Newly hired HSI special agents, ERO deportation officers, and ERO immigration enforcement agents undergo initial entry training at the ICE Academy on the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center in Glynco, Georgia. To meet division specific academic and practical instruction, the ICE Academy varies in length from 12 to 24 weeks depending on the position. Furthermore, following graduation, new HSI special agents and ERO officers undergo additional post academy training, as well as career-continuous training, and are assigned to an HSI or ERO office anywhere in the nation as well as around the world. Professional support staff are also assigned to one of the many ICE offices.

Investigative Programs

National Security

The National Security Division monitors the conduct of field enforcement operations in the investigation, detection, interdiction, prosecution, and removal of alien terrorists, terrorist supporters, and hostile foreign intelligence agents located within the United States. This branch also has operational oversight of all HSI special agents assigned to the 66 Federal Bureau of Investigation Joint Terrorism Task Force (JTTF), provides continuous support to all counter-terrorism investigations and ICE field offices supporting those counter-terrorism efforts and provides actionable proactive counter-terrorism lead information, in furtherance of preventing and disrupting alien terrorist cells domestically and abroad.[11]

Operation Community Shield

In February 2005, ICE began Operation Community Shield, a national law enforcement initiative that targets violent transnational street gangs through the use of ICE's broad law enforcement powers, including the unique and powerful authority to remove (deport) criminal aliens, including illegal aliens and legal permanent resident aliens.[12] Under Operation Community Shield:

Operation Community Shield Task Forces came to be around 2010. As of 2011, there were OCSTF in the following locations: Baltimore, MD, Birmingham, AL, Charlotte, NC, Dallas, TX, Salt Lake City, UT, San Angelo, TX, St. Paul, MN, and Honduras. By 2011, the operation had over 20,000 arrests, including over 3,000 arrests of alleged MS-13 members. Project Southern Tempest, the early 2011 arrests of hundreds of alleged gang members, representing hundreds of different gangs in 168 US cities, was part of Operation Community Shield. .[13]

Operation Predator

ICE developed Operation Predator in 2003 from the Operation Predator that was already in existence in the decommissioned I&NS Investigations Branch and the U.S. Border Patrol Criminal Alien Apprehension Program, BORCAP, an initiative to identify, investigate and arrest child predators and sexual offenders. Operation Predator draws on ICE's unique investigative and enforcement authorities to safeguard children. Coordinated nationally and internationally, Operation Predator brings together an array of ICE disciplines and resources to target these child sex abusers. As part of the effort:

Cyber Crimes

The Cyber Crimes Center (C3) Child Exploitation Section (CES) investigates the trans-border dimension of large-scale producers and distributors of images of child abuse, as well as individuals who travel in foreign commerce for the purpose of engaging in sex with minors. The CES employs the latest technology to collect evidence and track the activities of individuals and organized groups who sexually exploit children through the use of websites, chat rooms, newsgroups, and peer-to-peer trading. These investigative activities are organized under Operation Predator, a program managed by the CES. The CES also conducts clandestine operations throughout the world to identify and apprehend violators. The CES assists the field offices and routinely coordinates major investigations. The CES works closely with law enforcement agencies from around the world because the exploitation of children is a matter of global importance.[14]

C3 brings the full range of ICE computer and forensic assets together in a single location to combat such Internet-related crimes as:

C3 consists of four sections, three of which provide cyber technical and investigative services, the Cyber Crimes Section (CCS), the Child Exploitation Section (CES), and the Digital Forensic Section (DFS). The fourth section, the Information Technology and Administrative Section (ITAS), provides the technical and *operational infrastructure services necessary to support the other three C3 sections. The center is a co-location of special agents, intelligence research specialists, administrative support, and contractors, all of which are instrumental in operational and technical continuity. Within each section, there are various program managers assigned to certain programmatic areas. These program managers are responsible for supporting ICE Internet investigations through the generation and the dissemination of viable leads. Program managers are available to provide guidance and training to field agents as well as to other law enforcement (foreign and domestic) upon request.[14] Strategically located HSI Field Offices have their own Cyber Forensics Laboratories staffed by Computer Forensics Agents (CFA's). These CFA's are HSI Special Agents who have been extensively trained in cyber investigative techniques and protocols.

Child Exploitation

The C3 CES investigates large-scale producers and distributors of images of child abuse as well as individuals who travel in foreign commerce for the purpose of engaging in sex with minors. The CES employs the latest technology to collect evidence and track the activities of individuals and organized groups who sexually exploit children through the use of websites, chat rooms, newsgroups and peer-to-peer trading. The CES also conducts clandestine operations throughout the world to identify and apprehend violators. The CES assists the field offices and routinely coordinates major investigations. The CES works closely with law enforcement agencies from around the world because the exploitation of children is a matter of global importance.

Cyber Crimes Section

The Cyber Crimes Section (CCS) is responsible for developing and coordinating investigations of Immigration and Customs violations where the Internet is used to facilitate the criminal act. The CCS investigative responsibilities include fraud, theft of intellectual property rights, money laundering, identity and benefit fraud, the sale and distribution of narcotics and other controlled substances, illegal arms trafficking and the illegal export of strategic/controlled commodities and the smuggling and sale of other prohibited items such as art and cultural property. The CCS is involved in the development of Internet undercover law enforcement investigative methodology, and new laws and regulations to strengthen U.S. Cyber-Border Security. C3 supports the ICE Office of Investigation’s (OI) domestic field offices, along with ICE foreign attachés offices with cyber technical, and covert online investigative support.[14]

Notable ICE Cases

High Profile Deportations

Counter-Proliferation Investigations

Anti-Human Trafficking

Intellectual Property

In November 2010, DHS ICE seized several dozen domain names, replacing the sites with a logo and warning message.[17][18]

The violations in question under "Operation in Our Sites" included alleged piracy of music, movies and sporting events and alleged sales of counterfeit products. Ron Wyden has questioned the First Amendment issues involved.[19]

Killed in the Line of Duty

On February 25, 2011 - ICE Agent Jaime Zappata was killed in a gun battle by suspected gunmen on a highway in San Luis Potosi, Mexico. Becoming the First fallen ICE Officer while on duty in history.

ICE and immigration law

Immigration and Nationality Act Section 287(g) allows ICE to establish increased cooperation and communication with state, and local law enforcement agencies. Section 287(g) authorizes the Secretary of Homeland Security to enter into agreements with state and local law enforcement agencies, permitting designated officers to perform immigration law enforcement functions, pursuant to a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA), provided that the local law enforcement officers receive appropriate training and function under the supervision of sworn U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement officers. Under 287(g), ICE provides state and local law enforcement with the training and subsequent authorization to identify, process, and when appropriate, detain immigration offenders they encounter during their regular, daily law-enforcement activity.[20]
The 287(g) program is extremely controversial; it has been widely criticized for increasing racial profiling by police and undermining community safety because immigrant communities are no longer willing to report crimes or talk to law enforcement.[21]
The 287(g) program is one of several ICE ACCESS (ICE “Agreements of Cooperation in Communities to Enhance Safety and Security”) programs that increase collaboration between local law enforcement and immigration enforcement agents.[22]

ICE has played a key role in investigating and arresting citizens suspected of possessing and distributing child pornography.[23] Because a vast majority of child pornography is produced in foreign countries, ICE special agents utilize their authority to investigate persons and groups that traffic in this type of contraband, the importation of which via traditional mail or internet channels constitute violations of customs laws.

Detention centers

See also: Immigration_detention#United_States

ICE operates detention centers throughout the United States that detain illegal aliens who are apprehended and placed into removal proceedings. About 31,000 aliens are held in immigration detention on any given day,[24] in over 200 detention centers, jails, and prisons nationwide.

In 2006, the T. Don Hutto Residential Center opened specifically to house non-criminal families. Other significant facilities are located in Lumpkin, Georgia, Austin, Texas (at the Travis County Courthouse); Elizabeth, New Jersey; Oakdale, Louisiana; Florence, Arizona; Miami, Florida; Seattle; York, Pennsylvania; Batavia, New York; Aguadilla, Puerto Rico, and all along the Texas–Mexico border.

A December 2009 article by The Nation alleges that the ICE maintains 186 unlisted and unmarked subfield offices, which are not subject to ICE Detention Standards, and amount to secret detention. The article quotes James Pendergraph, formerly the executive director of ICE's Office of State and Local Coordination, as stating "If you don't have enough evidence to charge someone criminally but you think he's illegal, we can make him disappear."[25]

Deaths in detention

ICE has counted 107 deaths in detention since October 2003. The New York Times and the American Civil Liberties Union recently obtained documents detailing the circumstances of these deaths, under the Freedom of Information Act. "The documents show how officials — some still in key positions — used their role as overseers to cover up evidence of mistreatment, deflect scrutiny by the news media or prepare exculpatory public statements after gathering facts that pointed to substandard care or abuse," the New York Times reported.[26] The deaths in detention included the following cases:

Corporate contracts

Engineering and construction firm Kellogg, Brown and Root (KBR) released a press statement on January 24, 2006 that the company had been awarded a no-bid contingency contract from the Department of Homeland Security to support its ICE facilities in the event of an emergency. The maximum total value of the contract is $385 million and consists of a 1-year base period with four 1-year options. KBR held the previous ICE contract from 2000 through 2005. The contract provides for establishing temporary detention and processing capabilities to expand existing ICE Detention and Removal Operations Program facilities in the event of an emergency influx of immigrants into the U.S., or to support the rapid development of new programs. The contract may also provide migrant detention support to other government organizations in the event of an immigration emergency, the company said.

Equipment

ICE HSI Special Agents and ERO Officers and Agents carry the SIG-Sauer P229R pistol, with the DAK (Double Action Kellerman) trigger pull, chambered in the .40 S&W caliber cartridge, as their primary sidearm. Secondary weapons are on a list of authorized weapons published by the agency to its agents and officers. They also may be assigned the Remington Model 870 shotgun, the Steyr AUG rifle, or the Colt M4 carbine. Agents and officers assigned to a Special Response Team (SRT) are specifically assigned the Colt M4 carbine while some operators may also carry the Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine gun, although these are being replaced by the Heckler & Koch UMP in .40 S&W.[11]

ICE operates the only nation-wide radio communication system in the federal law enforcement community. The system, known as the National Law Enforcement Communications Center (NLECC) is Motorola-based and employs a technology specifically designed for ICE known as COTHEN (Customs Over The Horizon Network). Consequently, HSI special agents, ICE officers, and authorized subscribers are able to communicate with one another across the nation using NLECC's strategically placed repeaters and high-speed data lines. The center, commonly referred to internally as Sector, is based in Orlando, Florida.[11]

See also

Government of the United States portal
Law enforcement/Law enforcement topics portal

References

  1. ^ "FY2008 Budget". Web.archive.org. 2008-05-14. http://web.archive.org/web/20080514040948/http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/budget/fy2008/homeland.html. Retrieved 2011-12-22. 
  2. ^ "Homeland Security Budget-in-Brief Fiscal Year 2009". United States Department of Homeland Security. 2009. p. 41. http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/budget_bib-fy2009.pdf. Retrieved 31 January 2010. 
  3. ^ "Leadership: Assistant Secretary John T. Morton". U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. May 21, 2009. http://www.ice.gov/about/leadership/asstsec_bio/john_morton.htm. Retrieved August 9, 2009. 
  4. ^ "Federal Bureau of Investigation - Press Room - Headline Archives". Fbi.gov. http://www.fbi.gov/page2/dec04/jttf120114.htm. Retrieved 2010-09-27. 
  5. ^ "Careers". U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. http://www.ice.gov/careers/index.htm. Retrieved 2009-02-08. "ICE has approximately 15,000 employees working in 400 offices nationwide and over 50 locations internationally." 
  6. ^ "Programs". U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. http://www.ice.gov/careers/index.htm. Retrieved 2009-02-08. "With more than 17,200 employees and an annual budget of nearly $5 billion, ICE has broad law enforcement powers and authorities, with responsibility for enforcing more than 400 federal statutes within the United States." 
  7. ^ "ICE Leadership". Ice.gov. 1970-01-01. http://www.ice.gov/about/leadership/index.htm. Retrieved 2010-09-27. 
  8. ^ "ICE Operations". Web.archive.org. 2007-07-02. http://web.archive.org/web/20070702150700/http://www.ice.gov/about/operations.htm. Retrieved 2011-12-22. 
  9. ^ "ICE Office of Detention and Removal (ERO) ICE Detention and Deportation Officer Conrad Agagan". Ice.gov. 1970-01-01. http://www.ice.gov/careers/facesofice/conradagagan.htm. Retrieved 2010-09-27. 
  10. ^ "US Marshals - Justice Prisoner & Alien Transportation System (JPATS)". Usmarshals.gov. 2004-06-03. http://www.usmarshals.gov/jpats/. Retrieved 2010-09-27. 
  11. ^ a b c Office of Investigations-National Security
  12. ^ Office of Investigations-Operation Community Shield
  13. ^ James Gilbert - Sun staff writer (2011 01 03). "5 in Somerton arrested in national gang sweep, ice, gang, gangs". Yuma Sun. http://www.yumasun.com/news/ice-68073-gang-gangs.html. Retrieved 2011 03 03. 
  14. ^ a b c d ICE Office of Investigations-Investigative Services Division - Cyber Branch
  15. ^ "DHS.gov". DHS.gov. 2011-02-15. http://www.dhs.gov/ynews/releases/pr_1297804574965.shtm. Retrieved 2011-12-22. 
  16. ^ "Torrentfreak.com". Torrentfreak.com. http://torrentfreak.com/u-s-government-shuts-down-84000-websites-by-mistake-110216/. Retrieved 2011-12-22. 
  17. ^ Sara Jerome (2010 11 26). "Homeland Security seizes domain names - The Hill's Hillicon Valley". thehill.com. http://thehill.com/blogs/hillicon-valley/technology/130763-homeland-security-dept-seizes-domain-names-. Retrieved 2010 11 27. 
  18. ^ "U.S. Government Seizes BitTorrent Search Engine Domain and More - TorrentFreak". torrentfreak.com. http://torrentfreak.com/u-s-government-seizes-bittorrent-search-engine-domain-and-more-101126/. Retrieved 2010 11 27. 
  19. ^ Martinez, Jennifer. "ICE chief defends website seizures." Politico, 28 February 2011.
  20. ^ Budzinski, Joe (2006-09-30). "287g training from ICE sought by many U.S. jurisdictions - novatownhall blog". Novatownhall.com. http://www.novatownhall.com/blog/2006/09/287g_training_from_ice_sought.php. Retrieved 2010-09-27. 
  21. ^ "Advocates Condemn Obama Administration's Expansion of DHS's Failed 287(g) Program - Center for Media Justice". pitchengine.com. 2009-07-17. http://www.pitchengine.com/centerformediajustice/advocates-condemn-obama-administrations-expansion-of-dhss-failed-287g-program/18629/. Retrieved 2010-09-27. 
  22. ^ "Office of State and Local Coordination: ICE ACCESS". Ice.gov. http://www.ice.gov/oslc/iceaccess.htm. Retrieved 2010-09-27. 
  23. ^ "Teacher faces charges of pornography". MassLive.com. 2006-11-29. http://www.masslive.com/hampfrank/republican/index.ssf?/base/news-7/11647934289480.xml&coll=1. Retrieved 2010-09-27. 
  24. ^ Bernstein, Nina. "In-Custody Deaths". New York Times. http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/i/immigration_detention_us/incustody_deaths/index.html. Retrieved May 26, 2010. 
  25. ^ "TheNation.com". TheNation.com. 2009-12-16. http://www.thenation.com/doc/20100104/stevens. Retrieved 2010-09-27. 
  26. ^ a b c Nina Bernstein (January 10, 2010). "Officials Hid Truth About Immigrant Deaths in Jail". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/10/us/10detain.html. Retrieved January 10, 2010. 
  27. ^ Nina Bernstein (May 5, 2008). "Few Details on Immigrants Who Died in Custody". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/05/nyregion/05detain.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved January 10, 2010. 
  28. ^ a b c "Documents: Deaths in Immigration Detention". The New York Times. January 10, 2010. http://documents.nytimes.com/deaths-in-immigration-detention#p=29. Retrieved January 10, 2010. 
  29. ^ Nina Bernstein (June 26, 2007). "Deaths of immigrants in U.S. held for deportation spark scrutiny". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/26/world/americas/26iht-immig.4.6342462.html. Retrieved January 10, 2010. 

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Relevant U.S. and international laws
Naturalization Act (1790) · Naturalization Act (1795) · 14th Amendment (1868) · Naturalization Act (1870) · Page Act (1875) · Chinese Exclusion (1882) · Naturalization Act (1906) · Gentlemen's Agreement (1907) · Emergency Quota Act (1921) · Immigration Act (1924) · Tydings–McDuffie Act (1934) · Filipino Repatriation Act (1935) · Bracero Program (1942–64) · Magnuson Act (1943) · UN Refugee Convention (1951) · INS Act (1952) · INS Act (1965) · IRCA (1986) · Immigration Act (1990) · IIRIRA (1996) · NACARA (1997) · REAL ID Act (2005) · Secure Fence Act (2006)
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